It is obvious that the pottery and the textile art have always been the foundation of the first human creations. Pottery was born by the chance combination of four elements: air, fire, earth and water.
The most ancient ceramic remains date from 24,000 up to 26,000 years BC. However, some experts on the subject believe that the fired clay work started with the discovery of fire 400,000 years ago. In fact, the word « ceramic » comes from the Greek word « keramos », which means « potter soil ».

The general term “ceramics” includes different types: porcelain, faïence, earthenware, etc. which are obtained depending on the composition of the clay and the firing time:

PORCELAIN :
The name comes from the Italian word "porcellana" (shell).
Porcelain is a white pottery made of a thin and vitrified paste. This paste is smooth, homogeneous and translucent. The pottery is fired at a temperature which goes from 1,250ºC up to 1,460ºC. It consists of a close pasted without any kind of glaze or generally covered by a colourless glaze. The porcelain paste is composed of kaolin, quartz, feldspar and limestone and it can be transparent or opaque. Porcelain was discovered 4,000 years BC.

FAÏENCE :
The name comes from the city of Faenza in Italy.
It was during the 9th century, when the Muslim potters of Mesopotamia tuned up the definitive formula of the faïence.
The faïence paste is composed of clay, limestone, feldspar, dolomite and silica. This paste is fired at 1,000ªC approximately and the glaze up to 950ºC-980ºC. The resulting faïence paste is porous and open and it can be white or coloured.

EARTHENWARE:
Earthenware history begins in China during the Shangs time (17th-11th centuries BC)
The earthenware paste is composed of silica, aluminium, iron oxide, lime, manganese, and alkaline. It is a close paste and it can be white or coloured. According to its composition, the earthenware is fired at a temperature of 1,150ºC-1,350ºC.
Ceramic has been widely used in architecture in all countries at all times!

There are different types of ceramic: artistic, decorative, practical (dishes) and the ceramic used in the architecture and all of them are present in our daily life. Besides, the techniques inherited from the past which are used to produce some of the ceramics remain still unknown despite their presence in all the civilization and at all times.

The artist Martine MENARD perpetuates this savoir-faire. She is going to tell us the different steps of her work :

THE SOIL SELECTION :
It is very important for an artist to find the appropriate soil, and above all, the best soil for the pieces she/he wants to create.
There are unlimited varieties of clay depending on the country and the composition of the mineral deposits. Firstly, the differences appear depending on the quarry where the mineral is extracted. Secondly, the different compounds which will make the clay be more or less alkaline, ferrous, and calcareous or silica.
You may find the smooth qualities and the grog or chamotte qualities, which may be more or less thick.
Every ceramist artist needs to find the soil or clay that better matches his/her work methods, molding, drainage, etc. depending on the size of the pieces (small, medium or large) and if the pieces will have a practical or a decorative use.

" I live in Paris. My studio is in le Marais. I can not make my own soil. I buy clay packages of 10 or 12 kilos. The packages are cylindrical or rectangular so the clay preserves all its plasticity. It is impossible to mold or to place in the potter’s wheel any clay that is dry. It is necessary to rehydrate it. If you live countryside you may find your own clay.
While I am writing these lines, I think in my some friends of mine who have gardens or backyards. They change the composition of the soil depending on the plants they grow, since some plants do not grow but in rich soils, some prefer calcareous soils or even limy soils ".

THE LITHIC REDUCTION TECHNIQUES:

The artistic creation is always handmade and starts with a clay package. The artist may use a potter’s wheel, sieving techniques or plaques. The industrial products are commonly made by using molding or drainage techniques
The ‘NERIAGE’ technique involves mixing two soils with different colours in order to obtain some designs.
Once the piece is made, it is necessary to let it dry. The water contained in the piece will be completely evaporated after the first firing. This process entails a second reduction.

FIRING TECHNIQUES :

The energy used for firing may come from wood, gas or electricity. There are several types of furnaces and ovens: primitive, Japanese, Chinese, Sèvres, paper, etc. and they may be made of soil, fireproof bricks or fiber and have a ventilation shaft for evacuating the gas.

"Since I live in Paris, I prefer to use an electric oven that has a thermostat".

The firing is frequently done in two stages: - a first firing which reaches a temperature of 850ºC up to 1,000ºC during approximately 8 hours to obtain a porous and a dry piece without glaze (if it is faïence) or in order to obtain a compact piece (if it is earthenware or porcelain) - a second firing to fix the decoration. The pieces may be decorated with a paintbrush and oxides of different colours. Once the piece is fully decorated and glazed, it is fired again at 960ºC for 5 hours more or less (if it is faïence). Earthenware or porcelain pieces are fired at a temperature of 1,250ºC up to 1,400ºC. The firing temperatures ranged between 850ªC and 1,350ªC (and over) depending on the type of soil that has been used.
It is necessary to distinguish among faïence, which is fired at a low temperature (up to 1,100ºC), earthenware, that is fired at a high temperature (up to 1,300ºC) and porcelain (up to 1,400ºC). The faïence ceramic remains porous after the firing. In other words, it can absorb water and it can be affected by cold, in contrast to earthenware and porcelain which are totally vitrified. If the soil has a large amount of metallic oxides, alkaline salts or acids, the firing temperatures needs to be low, otherwise temperature may increase and may melt the piece.

The firing may be done using oxidation or reduction methods, which modify the colour of the glazes.

The “RAKU” firing method is fast. The word “RAKU” means “pleasure for the free time”. It is the name of a pottery which was originally used for the “Tea Ceremony” in Japan during the 16th century. The ritual of this ceremony is closely linked to the Zen philosophy which extols the virtues of simplicity, softness, nature and the unexpected. The name of this dynasty has been perpetuated to the present day and holds the honour of being a Living National Treasure. The glazed pieces, that have been previously dried, are fired at a temperature of 900ºC – 1,000ºC for about an hour. Later, the pieces are removed from the furnace with a pair of tongs. They are placed over trays covered with sawdust, leaves or paper which set in fire because of the contact. The thermal shock causes shivering and expansion differences between the piece and its glaze. That is why we say that the design is made by the smoke which filters in through the cracks.

DECORATION AND GLAZE :

The final decoration may be done in several ways: using a paintbrush, immersing the piece in paint or spraying with glazes or dissolved laying materials, engraving, striation, polishing, silks screen printing and so on.
The glaze is the vitrifying material which covers the ceramics. This cover is made of glass, oxides and pigments: iron oxide, copper, manganese, cobalt, nickel, and etcetera. These materials appear when a certain temperature is raised.
The glazing process at low temperature is used for faïence pieces and firing temperatures range between 900ºC and 1,000ºC.
The glazing process at high temperature is used for earthenware and porcelains and firing temperatures range between 1,250 and 1,400ºC.

Glazes may be matt, brilliant, or with a satin sheen. Glaze has a powder form which is dissolved in water. When the glaze coat is applied, the porous ceramic absorbs the water whereas the oxides remain in the surface of the piece. However, the colour obtained is as fragile as the wings of a butterfly till the piece is fired.
The colour of the unfired glaze does not correspond to the one which is obtained after the firing. The final colour of a ceramic piece will depend on the quality of the clay and its thickness, the size of the piece, the solution, and the thickness of the glaze. The final colour will also depend on the source of the light which illuminates the ceramic piece. So many variables…
The alchemy of the last firing contributes to the magic creation.

"“I usually think about materials, sizes and colours...
I think it is important to say that the resulting ceramic is a fusion of spirit, technique and the ceramist culture.
Harmony between body and spirit… The art of ceramics is a breather of life.
I concentrate before I start working, I visualize what I am going to plan, and otherwise the objects will not have a spirit, a soul, a life.
Through my ceramics I transmit and share what my imagination has created, a thought, and a moment of my life…"

"It is also necessary to know how to listen to the soil. It is a long negotiation between what I want to do and what it accepts, what it suggests to me."

Martine Ménard, Céramiste